History and Culture of Croatia

Croatia is a Balkan country with a long and complex history, a diverse culture and geography, and a modern and developed economy. Its name and identity are derived from the Croats, a Slavic people who settled in the area in the early Middle Ages, and who have maintained their distinctiveness and autonomy throughout the centuries. Croatia's regional variations, such as those of Dalmatia, Istria, Slavonia, and Zagorija, reflect the influences of different civilizations and empires that have ruled or interacted with the country, such as the Romans, the Franks, the Hungarians, the Ottomans, the Venetians, the Habsburgs, the French, and the Austrians.

Croatia's national culture is shared by most of its inhabitants, but it also accommodates the identities and cultures of some non-Croat groups, such as the Serbs, the Slovenes, the Muslims, the Jews, the Albanians, and the Roma. However, in some cases, non-Croat minorities have asserted their distinctiveness and resisted assimilation, such as the Italians in Istria, the Hungarians in Slavonia, and the Serbs in the Military Frontier. Croatia's history has been marked by wars and conflicts, both internal and external, that have shaped its political and territorial boundaries, as well as its social and economic development.

The most recent war, which occurred between 1991 and 1995, resulted in Croatia's independence from Yugoslavia, but also in the loss and displacement of many people, especially Serbs. Croatia's integration into the international community has been gradual and successful, as it has joined the United Nations, NATO, and the European Union, and adopted the euro as its currency. Croatia's diaspora, which includes the Croats of Herzegovina, has also contributed to the country's representation and influence in the world.

Croatia covers an area of about 21,825 square miles (56,540 square kilometers), with a coastline of about 3,600 miles (5,800 kilometers) along the Adriatic Sea. It borders Italy, Slovenia, and Hungary to the north, and Serbia and Bosnia-Herzegovina to the east and south. Croatia's geography is diverse and varied, with a Mediterranean climate and landscape in the coastal region, and a continental climate and landscape in the inland region. The coastal region is characterized by rocky mountains, islands, and bays, while the inland region is dominated by the Pannonian plain, a fertile and flat area that extends into neighboring countries. The Pannonian plain is drained by the Drava and Sava rivers, which provide water and irrigation for agriculture, the main economic activity in the region. Croatia's regional differences are also reflected in its culture, especially in its cuisine, folklore, and dialect. Croatia's capital and largest city is Zagreb, which is located in the center of the country. Zagreb has been the historical, political, economic, and intellectual hub of Croatia since the Middle Ages.

A beautiful view of the city of Dubrovnik in Croatia

Demography of Croatia

In 2000, the population of Croatia was about 5 million. The majority of the population, 78 percent, were Croats, the dominant ethnic group. Serbs made up 12 percent, and the remaining 10 percent consisted of Bosnians, Hungarians, Slovenes, and a very small number of Jews and Kosova Albanians. The religious composition of the nation corresponded to this ethnic distribution. Roman Catholics were 77 percent of the population; Serbian Orthodox, 11 percent; and Muslims, 1 percent. The Serb population declined after Croatia gained its independence from Yugoslavia and the war that broke out in 1991. In 1981, Serbs represented about 17 percent of the population.

Linguistic Affiliation

The Croatian language belongs to the South Slavic branch of the Indo-European language family. It has three major dialects, distinguished by three different words for "what"—sto, kaj, and ca. From 1945 to 1991, the official language was Serbo-Croatian, a standard language based on the Shtokavian dialect. However, even under socialism, Croats often called their language Croato-Serbian (instead of Serbo-Croatian) or simply Croatian. Croatian and Serbian variants of the language were always acknowledged as different dialects, and had different scripts. Croatian used the Latin alphabet, while Serbian used the Cyrillic alphabet. After independence, Croatian and Serbian were declared separate languages. The government has been working to establish an official Croatian language, reviving vocabulary that was neglected or suppressed under socialism.

Croatian and related South Slav languages are modern descendants of the languages of the Slavic peoples who moved into the lands of the former Yugoslavia around 500 C.E. Today, language is an important part of personal and group identity, but historically the Croatian language was not always spoken by a majority of Croats. Under the Hapsburgs, urban Croats spoke German, and Latin was the official language of administration. A national revival in the nineteenth century focused on the creation of a national language.

The dialects reflect not only regional variation but contact with and domination by different peoples. Thus, Istrians speak a Croatian influenced by Italian, while the people of Zagreb speak a Croatian strongly influenced by German. Regional dialects, such as Dalmatian, are sometimes regarded as provincial or indicative of less education and exposure to high culture. There is a counter tendency, however, to regard the regional dialects as more authentic forms of Croatian than those spoken by urban, cosmopolitan populations.

Symbolism.

The new state had to recreate a national culture by drawing from history and folk culture. In this sense, Croatia is an imagined community. The modern national identity draws on its medieval roots, association with Viennese "high culture," culturally diverse rural traditions, and Roman Catholicism.

Croats use the metaphor of a single related people with shared blood to describe themselves as a nationality. Religion is probably the most powerful symbol of national identity today. Most Croats consider themselves Roman Catholic whether they practice their religion or not. Language and history are also important symbols of identity. Croat language and its regional dialects are much spoken of by Croats themselves. Feelings about ancient ties to a territory and a direct link to the independent Kingdom of Croatia are part of the modern Croatian national identity.

The flag is the most important national symbol, with three horizontal stripes of color: red at the top, white in the middle, and blue at the bottom. This flag was adopted in 1848 under Austro-Hungarian rule. Under socialism, a red star was placed in the center. The current flag has a coat of arms in the center that features a symbol of each of the five regions of the country on a red and white checkerboard shield. The checkerboard goes back to the Middle Ages but was also used by Croatian fascists (Ustasha) during World War II. Serbs perceived the revival of this symbol as a challenge.

In the nineteenth century, Croats revived their folk traditions. Folk songs, folk dances, and village customs were regarded as symbols of national pride. This interest in village culture coincided with a quest for a stronger national identity under Hapsburg rule. Rural people were idealized and seen as representing the essence of the country and the personality of specific regions. The word narod means both "folk" and "nation." The symbols of regional culture are costumes, dances and songs, and village customs. These folk traditions were adopted and adapted by the middle classes in the nineteenth century and praised as well under socialism. Folklore performances that showcased regional cultures from across the former Yugoslavia emphasized Yugoslav "brotherhood and unity."

Important culture heroes are symbols of the long history of Croat people. Two notable figures are King Tomislav, the first king, and Ban Josip Jelacic, a noble military leader under Austro-Hungarian rule. Foods, both national and regional, and language are important symbols of national and regional identity.

History and Ethnic Relations

Croatia is a country with a long and complex history, shaped by the interactions and conflicts of various peoples and empires that have influenced its culture and identity. The Croats, a Slavic people who arrived in the region in the 6th century, established a kingdom in the 10th century, which later became part of the Hungarian and Habsburg domains. Croatia also faced invasions and occupations by the Ottomans, the Venetians, the French, and the Austrians, as well as periods of independence and autonomy. In the 20th century, Croatia was part of Yugoslavia, a socialist federation that disintegrated in the 1990s, leading to a war of independence that lasted until 1995. Croatia became a member of the United Nations in 1992, and joined NATO in 2009 and the European Union in 2013.

Croatia is a country with a diverse and heterogeneous population, composed of different ethnic and religious groups. The majority of the population are Croats, who are predominantly Roman Catholic and speak Croatian, a South Slavic language that has three main dialects. The largest minority group are Serbs, who are mostly Serbian Orthodox and speak Serbian, a closely related language that uses the Cyrillic script. Other minority groups include Bosnians, Hungarians, Slovenes, Albanians, Roma, Jews, and Italians, who have their own languages and cultures. Croatia has also experienced significant emigration and immigration, especially during and after the war, resulting in a diaspora of Croats and a presence of refugees and migrants from other countries.

Croatia is a country that has struggled to maintain its national identity and sovereignty in the face of external and internal challenges. Croatia has also sought to preserve and celebrate its cultural heritage and diversity, as well as to integrate into the international community and the European Union. Croatia is a country that is proud of its past, confident in its present, and optimistic about its future.

Urbanism, Architecture, the Use of Space

Croatia is a country with a varied and distinctive urban landscape, reflecting its historical and geographical diversity. Croatia has several major urban centers, such as Zagreb, Split, Rijeka, and Osijek, as well as many smaller towns and villages, each with its own character and identity. Croatia also has a long and scenic coastline along the Adriatic Sea, dotted with islands, bays, and ports, as well as a mountainous and forested inland region, crossed by rivers and plains.

Croatia is a country with a rich and varied architectural heritage, spanning from the ancient Roman and Byzantine ruins, to the medieval Romanesque and Gothic churches and fortifications, to the Renaissance and Baroque palaces and squares, to the modernist and socialist buildings and monuments, to the contemporary and innovative designs and interventions. Croatia's architecture reflects the influences of different cultures and styles that have shaped its history, as well as the creativity and originality of its architects and builders.

Croatia is a country that uses its space in different ways, depending on the context and the purpose. Croatia's urban spaces are often lively and vibrant, with public squares, parks, markets, cafes, and cultural venues that serve as places for socialization, recreation, and expression. Croatia's rural spaces are often tranquil and picturesque, with farms, vineyards, orchards, and gardens that provide food, wine, and natural beauty. Croatia's coastal spaces are often attractive and inviting, with beaches, marinas, resorts, and campsites that offer leisure, tourism, and relaxation. Croatia's natural spaces are often protected and preserved, with national parks, nature parks, and biosphere reserves that conserve biodiversity, ecology, and scenery.

Food and Economy

Croatia is a country with a diverse and rich culinary heritage, influenced by various cultures and regions that have shaped its history and geography. Croatian food reflects the diversity of its landscapes, from the Mediterranean coast to the continental plains and mountains. Croatian cuisine is also influenced by the seasons, the availability of local ingredients, and the religious and festive occasions that mark the calendar.

Food in Daily Life

Croatian food in daily life varies depending on the region, but some common elements are bread, cheese, cured meats, vegetables, fruits, and olive oil. Breakfast is usually light, consisting of coffee, tea, milk, or juice, and bread with butter, jam, honey, or cheese. Lunch is the main meal of the day, usually eaten between noon and 2 p.m., and often includes soup, salad, a main course of meat or fish with potatoes, rice, pasta, or polenta, and a dessert of fruit, cake, or pastry. Dinner is usually lighter than lunch, and may consist of leftovers, cold cuts, cheese, bread, or a simple dish such as an omelet or a stew. Snacks are common throughout the day, and may include fruits, nuts, pastries, chocolates, or ice cream.

Some typical dishes of Croatian cuisine are:

• Ćevapčići: grilled minced meat sausages, usually served with chopped onions, bread, and a red pepper sauce called ajvar.
• Peka: meat and vegetables (such as lamb, veal, chicken, potatoes, carrots, or zucchini) cooked under a metal or clay lid covered with hot coals, resulting in a tender and juicy dish.
• Pašticada: beef stewed in wine, vinegar, and spices, and served with gnocchi or noodles.
• Sarma: cabbage leaves stuffed with minced meat and rice, cooked in a tomato sauce.
• Zagrebački odrezak: veal or pork cutlet stuffed with cheese and ham, breaded and fried, and served with a creamy mushroom sauce.
• Brodet: fish stew with various types of fish and shellfish, cooked in a tomato sauce with wine, garlic, parsley, and laurel, and served with polenta.
• Rižot: risotto with various ingredients, such as seafood, mushrooms, chicken, or vegetables.
• Janjetina: roasted lamb, usually cooked on a spit over an open fire, and seasoned with salt, pepper, rosemary, and garlic.
• Pršut: dry-cured ham, similar to Italian prosciutto, usually sliced thinly and served with cheese, olives, and bread.
• Sir: cheese, either fresh or aged, made from cow, sheep, or goat milk, and often flavored with herbs, spices, or truffles.
• Strukli: pastry filled with cheese and sour cream, either boiled or baked, and sometimes topped with sugar, breadcrumbs, or poppy seeds.
• Kremšnita: cream cake with a layer of custard and whipped cream between two layers of puff pastry, and dusted with powdered sugar.
• Fritule: deep-fried dough balls, flavored with lemon zest, raisins, or rum, and sprinkled with powdered sugar.

Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions

Croatian food customs at ceremonial occasions are influenced by religious and cultural traditions, as well as personal preferences. Some of the most important occasions are:

• Christmas: On Christmas Eve, many Croatians fast or eat only fish and vegetables, such as cod with potatoes and garlic, or carp with cornbread. On Christmas Day, they feast on roast turkey, goose, duck, or pork, with various side dishes and desserts, such as mlinci (thin dried flatbread), sarma, peka, strukli, kremšnita, or orahnjača (walnut roll).
• Easter: On Easter Sunday, Croatians celebrate the resurrection of Christ with a festive breakfast, consisting of boiled eggs, ham, horseradish, cheese, bread, and a sweet bread called pinca or sirnica. They also exchange decorated eggs, called pisanice, as symbols of life and rebirth.
• Weddings: Croatian weddings are usually lavish and festive affairs, lasting for several days and involving many guests, music, dancing, and food. The wedding menu may vary depending on the region and the preferences of the couple, but some common dishes are roast lamb, roast pig, peka, sarma, pašticada, and various cakes and pastries.
• Birthdays: Croatian birthdays are usually celebrated with family and friends, with a cake, candles, and gifts. The cake may be homemade or bought, and may have various flavors and decorations, such as chocolate, fruit, cream, or marzipan. Some popular cakes are torta od sira (cheesecake), torta od čokolade (chocolate cake), or torta od višanja (sour cherry cake).

Basic Economy

Croatia's basic economy is a developed social market economy, based on various sectors such as services, industry, agriculture, and tourism. Croatia is one of the largest economies in Southeast Europe, and a member of the European Union, the Eurozone, and the Schengen Area. Croatia's main trading partners are Italy, Germany, Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Hungary. Croatia's main exports are transport equipment, machinery, textiles, chemicals, foodstuffs, and fuels. Croatia's main imports are machinery, transport and electrical equipment, chemicals, fuels and lubricants, and foodstuffs.

Croatia's economy has undergone several challenges and transformations since the 1990s, when it emerged from the dissolution of Yugoslavia and the war of independence. Croatia faced a severe recession, high unemployment, inflation, corruption, and external debt, as well as the need to privatize state-owned enterprises, establish a market economy, and integrate into the European and global markets. Croatia achieved a gradual recovery and growth, as well as political and economic reforms, that enabled it to join the EU in 2013 and the Eurozone in 2023. However, Croatia still faces some issues, such as low productivity, competitiveness, innovation, and investment, as well as demographic decline, emigration, and regional disparities.

Land Tenure and Property

Croatia's land tenure and property system is based on the principle of private ownership, as well as the protection of public and common goods. The Constitution of Croatia guarantees the right to own and inherit property, as well as the right to compensation for expropriation or restriction of property rights for public purposes. The legal framework for land tenure and property in Croatia consists of various laws and regulations, such as the Law on Ownership and Other Real Rights, the Law on Land Register, the Law on Cadastre, the Law on State Survey and Real Estate Cadastre, the Law on Agricultural Land, the Law on Forests, the Law on Spatial Planning and Construction, and the Law on Real Estate Brokerage.

The land tenure and property system in Croatia is administered by several institutions, such as the Ministry of Justice, the Ministry of Physical Planning, Construction and State Assets, the State Geodetic Administration, the State Office for State Property Management, the Agency for Legal Transactions and Mediation in Real Estate, and the courts. The main registers for land tenure and property in Croatia are the land register and the cadastre. The land register is a public and legal register that records the ownership and other real rights over immovable property, such as easements, mortgages, leases, or pre-emption rights. The cadastre is a technical and administrative register that records the location, size, shape, and value of immovable property, as well as the cadastral parcels, buildings, and owners. The land register and the cadastre are not fully harmonized and integrated, which may cause discrepancies and disputes over land tenure and property rights.

The land tenure and property system in Croatia is also influenced by the historical and social context, as well as the current challenges and opportunities. Croatia has a complex and diverse land tenure and property history, marked by various periods of occupation, colonization, migration, and war, as well as different legal and administrative systems, such as Roman, Byzantine, Venetian, Ottoman, Habsburg, Yugoslav, and Croatian. These factors have resulted in a variety of land tenure and property types, such as private, state, communal, cooperative, or church property, as well as different forms of ownership, such as individual, joint, or collective ownership. Croatia also faces some contemporary issues, such as the restitution and privatization of nationalized property, the legalization of illegally constructed buildings, the registration and protection of cultural and natural heritage, the management and development of state-owned and agricultural land, the resolution of property disputes and claims, and the improvement of land administration and governance.

Division of Labor

Croatia's division of labor is determined by various factors, such as the structure and performance of the economy, the supply and demand of the labor market, the education and skills of the workforce, the social and demographic characteristics of the population, and the legal and institutional framework of the labor policy. Croatia's division of labor is characterized by the following features:

• The service sector is the largest and most dynamic sector of the economy, accounting for about 76% of the GDP and employing about 61% of the labor force in 2022. The service sector includes various activities, such as trade, tourism, transport, communication, finance, education, health, public administration, and other services.
• The industry sector is the second largest sector of the economy, accounting for about 19% of the GDP and employing about 25% of the labor force in 2022. The industry sector includes various activities, such as manufacturing, mining, energy, construction, and water supply.
• The agriculture sector is the smallest and least developed sector of the economy, accounting for about 5% of the GDP and employing about 14% of the labor force in 2022. The agriculture sector includes various activities, such as crop production, livestock, fishing, and forestry.
• The labor force participation rate is about 66% in 2022, with a slight gender gap, as 69% of men and 63% of women are active in the labor market. The unemployment rate is about 8% in 2022, with a higher rate for women (9%) than for men (7%). The youth unemployment rate is about 18% in 2022, indicating a challenge for the integration of young people into the labor market.
• The education level of the labor force is relatively high, as about 32% of the labor force has completed tertiary education, 49% has completed upper secondary education, and 19% has completed lower secondary or less education in 2022. The education system in Croatia is organized into four levels: pre-school, primary, secondary, and higher education. The compulsory education lasts for eight years, from age 6 to 15, and consists of four years of primary school and four years of lower secondary school. The secondary education lasts for four years, from age 15 to 19, and offers various types of programs, such as general, vocational, technical, or artistic. The higher education lasts for three to six years, depending on the type and level of the program, and includes universities, polytechnics, and colleges.
• The occupational structure of the labor force is diverse and reflects the structure of the economy, as well as the skills and preferences of the workers. The main occupational groups in 2022 are: professionals (18%), service and sales workers (17%), technicians and associate professionals (16%), craft and related trades workers (14%), clerical support workers (11%), plant and machine operators and assemblers (9%), managers (7%), elementary occupations (6%), and skilled agricultural, forestry and fishery workers (2%).
• The income distribution of the labor force is unequal and varies by region, sector, occupation, education, gender, and age. The average monthly net wage in 2022 is about 1,000 euros, but the median wage is about 800 euros, indicating a skewed distribution. The highest wages are earned by workers in the financial and insurance sector, the information and communication sector, the public administration and defense sector, and the professional, scientific and technical sector. The lowest wages are earned by workers in the accommodation and food service sector, the agriculture, forestry and fishing sector, the administrative and support service sector, and the construction sector. The wage gap between men and women is about 10%, with men earning more than women on average. The wage gap between young and old workers is about 20%, with older workers earning more than younger workers on average.

Social Stratification

Croatia is a country with a complex and dynamic social structure, influenced by various historical, political, economic, and cultural factors. Croatia's social stratification reflects the diversity and inequality of its population, as well as the challenges and opportunities of its development and integration. Croatia's social stratification is characterized by the following features:

• Croatia has no official class system, but there are distinguishable social strata based on one's family name, professional status, education, income, and lifestyle. These social strata are not rigid or fixed, but rather fluid and flexible, as people can move up or down the social ladder depending on their achievements, choices, and circumstances.
• Croatia has a relatively high level of social mobility, as people have access to education, health care, social services, and employment opportunities that can improve their social position and quality of life. However, there are also barriers and obstacles to social mobility, such as discrimination, corruption, nepotism, and regional disparities.
• Croatia has a relatively low level of social conflict, as people generally respect and tolerate each other's differences and identities, and cooperate and communicate in a peaceful and democratic manner. However, there are also sources and potential for social conflict, such as ethnic, religious, political, and ideological divisions, as well as social grievances and discontent.
• Croatia has a relatively high level of social cohesion, as people share a common sense of national identity and culture, and participate in various forms of social and civic engagement and solidarity. However, there are also challenges and threats to social cohesion, such as social exclusion, marginalization, polarization, and fragmentation.

Classes and Castes

Croatia's classes and castes are not officially recognized or defined, but they can be roughly categorized into four main groups, based on their economic and social characteristics:

• The upper class consists of the wealthiest and most influential people in the country, such as entrepreneurs, executives, politicians, celebrities, and professionals. They have high levels of income, assets, education, and power, and enjoy a luxurious and privileged lifestyle. They are often associated with prominent family names, elite institutions, and urban centers.
• The middle class consists of the majority of the population, such as employees, managers, teachers, doctors, lawyers, engineers, and artists. They have moderate levels of income, savings, education, and influence, and enjoy a comfortable and stable lifestyle. They are often associated with meritocracy, mobility, and modernity, and urban and suburban areas.
• The working class consists of the lower-income and less-educated people in the country, such as workers, farmers, tradesmen, and service providers. They have low levels of income, wealth, education, and power, and struggle to meet their basic needs and aspirations. They are often associated with manual labor, rural areas, and traditional values.
• The underclass consists of the poorest and most marginalized people in the country, such as the unemployed, the homeless, the disabled, the elderly, the refugees, and the Roma. They have little or no income, assets, education, or opportunities, and suffer from social exclusion, discrimination, and deprivation. They are often associated with social problems, welfare dependency, and urban ghettos.

Symbols of Social Stratification

Croatia's symbols of social stratification are the visible and invisible signs and markers that indicate and differentiate one's social status and identity. Some of the most common symbols of social stratification in Croatia are:

• Style of dress: People's clothing, accessories, and appearance reflect their taste, preference, and affordability, as well as their social and professional roles and expectations. For example, people who wear suits, ties, dresses, and jewelry are usually perceived as more affluent, educated, and respectable than people who wear jeans, T-shirts, sneakers, and caps.
• Material wealth: People's possessions, such as houses, apartments, cars, furniture, appliances, and gadgets, reflect their income, wealth, and lifestyle, as well as their social and personal goals and achievements. For example, people who own a house or an apartment in a city, an automobile, a vacation house, and international travel are usually perceived as more successful, prestigious, and satisfied than people who rent a small apartment, use public transportation, and rarely travel.
• Education level: People's education, such as degrees, diplomas, certificates, and skills, reflect their knowledge, competence, and qualification, as well as their social and career opportunities and prospects. For example, people who have completed tertiary education, speak English and other foreign languages, and have specialized or professional skills are usually perceived as more intelligent, capable, and employable than people who have completed lower secondary or less education, speak only Croatian, and have general or basic skills.
• Language and dialect: People's language, such as accent, vocabulary, and grammar, reflect their origin, culture, and identity, as well as their social and regional affiliation and belonging. For example, people who speak standard Croatian, use formal and polite expressions, and avoid slang and swear words are usually perceived as more educated, cultured, and refined than people who speak regional dialects, use informal and rude expressions, and use slang and swear words.

Political Life

Croatia is a parliamentary, representative democratic republic, where the prime minister is the head of government and the president is the head of state. The political system is based on the separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches, and the respect for human rights and the rule of law. Croatia is a member of the European Union, NATO, the United Nations, and other international organizations.

Government

The government of Croatia is composed of the prime minister and 20 ministers, who are responsible for various policy areas. The government is appointed by the president, with the approval of the parliament, and is accountable to both. The government proposes and implements laws, regulations, and policies, as well as the state budget and foreign affairs. The current government, led by Prime Minister Andrej Plenković, is a two-party minority coalition of the Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ) and the Independent Democratic Serb Party (SDSS), supported by several other parties and representatives.

Leadership and Political Officials

The president of Croatia is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces and represents the country at home and abroad. The president is elected by popular vote for a five-year term, limited to two terms. The president nominates the prime minister, can dissolve the parliament and call elections, and has a limited legislative veto power. The current president, Zoran Milanović, is a former prime minister and leader of the Social Democratic Party (SDP). He was elected in January 2020, defeating the incumbent Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović.

The parliament of Croatia is a unicameral legislative body, consisting of 151 members elected by proportional representation for a four-year term. The parliament enacts and amends the constitution and laws, adopts the budget, declares war and peace, defines national borders, calls referendums and elections, appoints and supervises public officials, and grants amnesties. The parliament also elects the speaker, who presides over the sessions and represents the parliament. The current speaker, Gordan Jandroković, is a member of the HDZ.

The judiciary of Croatia is independent of the other branches of government and consists of the Supreme Court, the Constitutional Court, and lower courts. The Supreme Court is the highest court of appeal in civil, criminal, and administrative cases, while the Constitutional Court reviews the constitutionality and legality of laws, regulations, and acts of government. The judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by a judicial council, elected by the parliament, while the judges of the Constitutional Court are appointed by the president, the government, and the parliament.

The main political parties in Croatia are the HDZ and the SDP, which have alternated in power since the first multi-party elections in 1990. The HDZ is a center-right, conservative, and Christian democratic party, while the SDP is a center-left, social democratic, and pro-European party. Other significant parties include the Bridge of Independent Lists (MOST), a centrist and populist party, the Croatian People's Party – Liberal Democrats (HNS), a liberal and pro-European party, the Croatian Peasant Party (HSS), a agrarian and conservative party, the Croatian Social Liberal Party (HSLS), a liberal and moderate party, the SDSS, a party representing the Serb minority, and several other regional, ethnic, and green parties.

Social Problems and Control

Croatia faces several social problems and challenges, such as corruption, poverty, social exclusion, discrimination, domestic violence, and migration. Corruption is a widespread and persistent issue, affecting various sectors and levels of government, public administration, judiciary, health care, education, and business. Croatia ranks 63rd out of 180 countries in the 2019 Corruption Perceptions Index, with a score of 47 out of 100. ⁶ The government has adopted several anti-corruption strategies and laws, and established specialized bodies and agencies, such as the Office for the Prevention of Corruption and Organized Crime (USKOK), to combat corruption and prosecute offenders. However, the implementation and enforcement of these measures have been slow and uneven, and the public trust in the institutions and the rule of law remains low. ⁷

Poverty and social exclusion are also serious problems, affecting especially the elderly, the unemployed, the disabled, the Roma, and other vulnerable groups. According to the 2019 EU statistics, 23.8% of the population was at risk of poverty or social exclusion, compared to the EU average of 21.1%. ⁸ The poverty rate was 15.7%, the severe material deprivation rate was 9.4%, and the low work intensity rate was 9.1%. ⁹ The government has adopted several social protection and inclusion policies and programs, such as the guaranteed minimum benefit, the child allowance, the housing allowance, and the active labor market measures, to reduce poverty and improve social welfare. However, the coverage and adequacy of these benefits and services have been insufficient and unequal, and the social protection system has been fragmented and inefficient.

Discrimination is another problem, affecting mainly the ethnic, religious, and sexual minorities, as well as women and migrants. Croatia has a diverse and multiethnic society, with 87.3% of the population identifying as Croats, 4.4% as Serbs, and 8.3% as other ethnic groups, such as Bosniaks, Hungarians, Italians, Roma, and Slovenes. ¹¹ Croatia also has a variety of religious affiliations, with 86.3% of the population belonging to the Roman Catholic Church, 4.4% to the Serbian Orthodox Church, 1.5% to Islam, and 7.8% to other or no religions.

Croatia has a legal and institutional framework for the protection and promotion of human rights and the prevention and elimination of discrimination, based on the constitution, the Anti-Discrimination Act, the Ombudsman, and other laws and bodies. However, the implementation and enforcement of these mechanisms have been inadequate and inconsistent, and the incidents and attitudes of intolerance, hate speech, and violence against minorities have persisted and increased.

Domestic violence is a prevalent and underreported problem, affecting mostly women and children. According to the 2019 report by the Women's Room, a non-governmental organization, there were 13,394 reported cases of domestic violence in 2018, of which 77.4% involved women as victims. ¹⁴ The government has adopted several laws and policies to prevent and combat domestic violence, such as the Law on Protection from Domestic Violence, the National Strategy for Protection from Domestic Violence, and the Protocol on the Procedure in Cases of Domestic Violence. However, the response and support services for the victims have been insufficient and inaccessible, and the prosecution and sanctioning of the perpetrators have been lenient and ineffective.

Migration is a complex and controversial issue, involving both emigration and immigration. Croatia has experienced a large-scale emigration of its citizens, especially the young and educated, to other EU countries, in search of better economic and social opportunities. According to the 2019 report by the Institute of Economics, Zagreb, more than 230,000 people left Croatia between 2013 and 2018, reducing the population by 5.5%. ¹⁶ This trend has had negative impacts on the demographic, economic, and social development of the country, such as population aging, labor shortages, brain drain, and social security deficits. ¹⁷ The government has adopted several measures to address the emigration challenge, such as increasing the minimum wage, improving the education and health systems, and encouraging the return and integration of the diaspora. However, these measures have been insufficient and ineffective, and the emigration flows have continued.

Croatia has also faced a significant influx of immigrants, mainly refugees and asylum seekers from the Middle East, Africa, and Asia, who transit through Croatia on their way to other EU countries, or who seek international protection in Croatia. According to the 2019 report by the Ministry of the Interior, Croatia registered 10,525 illegal border crossings and 1,283 asylum applications in 2018. ¹⁹ The government has adopted several laws and policies to manage the migration flows, such as the Law on International and Temporary Protection, the Migration Policy, and the Action Plan for the Integration of Persons who have been Granted International Protection. However, the reception and integration conditions for the migrants have been poor and inadequate, and the human rights violations and abuses by the authorities and the locals have been frequent and severe.

Military Activity

Croatia has a professional and modern armed forces, consisting of the army, the navy, the air force, and the special operations forces. The president is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, and the government is responsible for the defence policy and budget. The armed forces have 14,325 active personnel and 20,105 reserve personnel, and a defence budget of about 1.46% of GDP in 2022. ²¹ The armed forces are equipped with various weapons and equipment, such as tanks, armored vehicles, artillery, jet fighters, helicopters, and ships, mostly procured from domestic and foreign suppliers. ²²

The main role and mission of the armed forces are to protect the national interests and sovereignty of Croatia, and to defend against any external aggression or threat. The armed forces.

Social Welfare and Change Programs

Croatia is a country with a comprehensive and universal social welfare system, aimed at providing assistance and support to the poor and vulnerable, as well as promoting social inclusion and cohesion. The social welfare system covers various benefits, services, and programs, such as income support, social services, health care, education, employment, housing, and pensions. The social welfare system is funded by the state budget, the social security contributions, the EU funds, and other sources.

The main actors and institutions involved in the social welfare system are the Ministry of Labour, Pension System, Family and Social Policy, the Croatian Social Welfare Institute, the Croatian Health Insurance Institute, the Croatian Pension Insurance Institute, the Croatian Employment Service, the local and regional self-government units, the non-governmental organizations, and the social welfare beneficiaries. The social welfare system is regulated by various laws and policies, such as the Social Welfare Act, the Health Care Act, the Pension Insurance Act, the Employment Promotion Act, the Housing Act, and the National Strategy for Social Protection and Inclusion.

The main challenges and opportunities for the social welfare system are related to the demographic, economic, and social changes and trends, such as the population decline, the aging, the emigration, the poverty, the inequality, the social exclusion, the discrimination, the migration, the digitalization, and the globalization. The social welfare system needs to adapt and respond to these changes and trends, by improving its effectiveness, efficiency, adequacy, accessibility, and sustainability, as well as by fostering innovation, participation, and cooperation.

Nongovernmental Organizations and Other Associations

Croatia is a country with a vibrant and diverse civil society, composed of various nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and other associations that operate in different fields and sectors, such as human rights, democracy, environment, culture, education, health, social welfare, and development. According to the 2019 report by the Government Office for Cooperation with NGOs, there were 55,270 registered NGOs in Croatia, of which 52,089 were associations, 2,891 were foundations, and 290 were private institutions.

The legal and institutional framework for NGOs and other associations in Croatia is based on the Constitution, which guarantees the freedom of association, expression, and assembly, as well as the Law on Associations, the Law on Foundations and Funds, the Law on Institutions, and other relevant laws and regulations. The main government body responsible for the cooperation and coordination with NGOs and other associations is the Government Office for Cooperation with NGOs, which was established in 1998. The main platform for the dialogue and partnership between the government and the civil society is the Council for Civil Society Development, which was established in 2002.

The main sources of funding and support for NGOs and other associations in Croatia are the state budget, the local and regional self-government units, the EU funds and programs, the foreign donors and foundations, the membership fees and donations, and the income-generating activities. According to the 2019 report by the Government Office for Cooperation with NGOs, the total amount of public funding for NGOs and other associations in 2018 was about 1.3 billion kuna (about 173 million euros), of which 54% came from the state budget, 32% from the local and regional self-government units, and 14% from the EU funds and programs.

The main challenges and opportunities for NGOs and other associations in Croatia are related to the development and sustainability of the civil society sector, such as the legal and administrative environment, the financial and human resources, the public perception and trust, the participation and representation, the accountability and transparency, the innovation and cooperation, and the impact and evaluation.

Gender Roles and Statuses

Croatia is a country with a patriarchal and traditional culture, where gender roles and stereotypes are still prevalent and influential. Croatia's gender roles and statuses reflect the historical, political, economic, and social factors that have shaped its society and identity. Croatia's gender roles and statuses are characterized by the following features:

Division of Labor by Gender

Croatia's division of labor by gender is marked by a significant gap and imbalance between women and men in the labor market and the household. Croatia's division of labor by gender is influenced by various factors, such as the education system, the legal framework, the social norms, and the personal choices.

In the labor market, women face lower participation, higher unemployment, lower wages, fewer opportunities, and more discrimination than men. According to the World Bank, the labor force participation rate among women was 46.4% and among men was 58.4% in 2022¹. The unemployment rate among women was 8.9% and among men was 7.2% in 2022¹. The gender pay gap was 10% in 2018². The share of women in managerial positions was 31.1% in 2020³. The main barriers and challenges for women's economic empowerment are the lack of adequate and affordable child care and elder care services, the unequal distribution of unpaid domestic and care work, the gender segregation and discrimination in certain sectors and occupations, and the social and cultural expectations and stereotypes about women's and men's roles and abilities.

In the household, women bear the primary responsibility for domestic and care work, while men are expected to be the main breadwinners and providers. According to the 2019 report by the UN Women, women spent 3.5 hours per day on unpaid domestic and care work, while men spent 1.5 hours per day in 2018⁴. The main factors and drivers for the unequal division of labor by gender in the household are the lack of recognition and valuation of women's unpaid work, the insufficient and inflexible parental leave and work arrangements, the limited involvement and support of men and other family members, and the persistent and traditional gender norms and attitudes about women's and men's roles and duties.

The Relative Status of Women and Men

Croatia's relative status of women and men is determined by the degree of equality and equity between women and men in various aspects of life, such as rights, opportunities, resources, and outcomes. Croatia's relative status of women and men is measured by various indicators and indices, such as the Gender Inequality Index, the Global Gender Gap Index, and the Social Institutions and Gender Index. Croatia's relative status of women and men is influenced by various factors, such as the legal and institutional framework, the political and civil participation, the health and education access and attainment, and the social and cultural values and beliefs.

In terms of rights, Croatia has a legal and institutional framework that guarantees and protects the human rights and fundamental freedoms of women and men, as well as the prevention and elimination of discrimination and violence based on gender. Croatia has ratified and implemented various international and regional conventions and instruments on gender equality and women's rights, such as the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, and the Istanbul Convention. Croatia has also adopted and enforced various national laws and policies on gender equality and women's empowerment, such as the Gender Equality Act, the National Policy for Gender Equality, and the Protocol on the Procedure in Cases of Domestic Violence. However, the implementation and enforcement of these mechanisms have been inadequate and inconsistent, and the incidents and attitudes of intolerance, hate speech, and violence against women and girls have persisted and increased⁵.

In terms of opportunities, Croatia has made some progress and achievements in increasing and improving the participation and representation of women and men in various spheres and levels of decision-making and leadership, such as politics, public administration, judiciary, business, and civil society. According to the Inter-Parliamentary Union, the share of women in parliament was 31.1% in 2021, ranking 51st out of 190 countries⁶. According to the World Bank, the share of women in ministerial positions was 25% in 2020⁷. According to the European Commission, the share of women among judges was 71% in 2018⁸. According to the Croatian Chamber of Economy, the share of women among entrepreneurs was 32.4% in 2019⁹. However, there are still gaps and obstacles for women's and men's equal and effective participation and representation in various sectors and positions, such as the lack of quotas and affirmative action measures, the underrepresentation of women in certain fields and levels, the overrepresentation of men in certain fields and levels, and the gender bias and stereotypes in the selection and evaluation processes.

Socialization, Etiquette, Religion, Medicine and Health Care

Croatia is a country with a rich and diverse culture, influenced by its history, geography, and interactions with other nations and peoples. Croatia's socialization, etiquette, religion, medicine and health care reflect its cultural values and norms, as well as its challenges and opportunities.

Socialization

Socialization is the process of learning and internalizing the norms, values, and behaviors of one's society. In Croatia, socialization begins in the family, which is the primary and most important agent of socialization. Croatian families are usually nuclear, consisting of a married couple and their children, but extended families are also common and valued, especially in rural areas. Croatian families are often close-knit and supportive, providing emotional, material, and moral guidance to their members. Croatian families also play a key role in transmitting the national, regional, and religious identity and heritage to the younger generations.

The second major agent of socialization in Croatia is the education system, which is compulsory and free for all children from the age of six to 15. The education system consists of eight years of primary school and four years of secondary school, which can be general, vocational, or artistic. The education system aims to provide students with the knowledge, skills, and values necessary for their personal and professional development, as well as for their participation and contribution to the society. The education system also fosters the respect for human rights, democracy, diversity, and intercultural dialogue, as well as the awareness of the Croatian culture and identity.

Other agents of socialization in Croatia include the mass media, the peer groups, the religious institutions, and the civil society organizations. The mass media, especially television, radio, and the internet, provide information, entertainment, and education to the Croatian population, as well as influence their opinions, attitudes, and behaviors. The peer groups, especially among adolescents and young adults, offer friendship, companionship, and socialization opportunities, as well as shape the values, norms, and lifestyles of their members. The religious institutions, mainly the Catholic Church, offer spiritual, moral, and social guidance and support to the Croatian population, as well as promote the religious and ethical values and practices. The civil society organizations, such as NGOs, associations, clubs, and movements, offer various forms of civic engagement, participation, and activism to the Croatian population, as well as advocate for the social, political, and environmental causes and interests.

Etiquette

Etiquette is the set of rules and conventions that govern the social behavior and interactions in a society. In Croatia, etiquette is influenced by the traditions, customs, and manners of the Croatian culture, as well as by the modern and European influences. Some of the basic aspects of etiquette in Croatia are:

Greetings: When meeting someone for the first time, people usually shake hands and say "Bok" (Hello) or "Dobar dan" (Good day). Greetings with kisses, one on each cheek, are usually reserved for family or very close friends. It is also accepted for men to kiss each other on each cheek. A hug is also a perfectly accepted greeting and very common for girls. When addressing someone, people use the formal "Vi" (You) and the last name, unless they are on a first-name basis or use a nickname. Titles, such as "Gospodin" (Mr.), "Gospođa" (Mrs.), or "Doktor" (Doctor), are also used when appropriate.

Conversation: Croatians are generally friendly, hospitable, and open to conversation, especially about topics such as sports, music, culture, politics, and travel. However, some topics, such as the recent war, personal finances, or ethnic issues, may be sensitive or controversial, and should be avoided or approached with caution and respect. Croatians are also proud of their country and culture, and appreciate when foreigners show interest and knowledge about them. Humor, sarcasm, and irony are common in Croatian conversation, but may not always be understood or appreciated by foreigners. Croatians also tend to be expressive and animated, using gestures, facial expressions, and eye contact to communicate.

Visiting: When visiting someone's home, it is polite to bring a small gift, such as flowers, chocolates, wine, or liquor, for the host or hostess. It is also customary to remove one's shoes at the entrance and put on the slippers that will be provided. Guests are usually offered food and drink, and should accept at least a little, as refusing may be considered rude. Guests should also compliment the host or hostess on their home and their cooking, and offer to help with serving or cleaning. When leaving, guests should thank the host or hostess for their hospitality and invite them to visit them in return.

Dining: When dining in a restaurant, it is polite to wait for everyone to be seated and for the host or hostess to start eating before beginning. The usual way to eat is with a knife in the right hand and a fork in the left hand. It is acceptable to use bread to push food onto the fork, but not to cut it with a knife. It is also acceptable to use one's fingers to eat some foods, such as pizza, sandwiches, or pastries. When finished, the knife and fork should be placed parallel on the plate, with the handles facing right. The bill is usually paid by the person who invited the others, unless otherwise agreed. A tip of 10% to 15% is customary, but not obligatory.

Religion

Religion is an important aspect of Croatian culture, as most of the population identifies as Roman Catholic, and the Catholic Church plays a significant role in the society. According to the 2021 census, 78.97% of residents residing in Croatia are Catholics, while Orthodox Christians make up 3.32% of the population, Muslims 1.32%, and Protestants 0.26% of the population. 6.39% of Croatians are not religious, atheists or agnostics and 3.86% are undeclared. ¹

Croatia has a long and rich history of Christianity, dating back to the 7th century, when the Croats were converted to Catholicism by the missionaries from Rome. The Catholic Church and its clergy played a pivotal role in the country's education, culture, and identity, especially during the periods of foreign domination and oppression. The Catholic Church also supported the Croatian national movement and the independence from Yugoslavia in the 1990s. The Catholic Church has a strong influence on the public policies and the moral values of the society, especially on issues such as abortion, contraception, divorce, homosexuality, and euthanasia.

Croatia has a high level of religious freedom and tolerance, as guaranteed by the constitution and the law. All religious communities are equal before the law and separate from the state. There is no official religion and no state religion. Religious education is optional in public schools, and students can choose between Catholic, Orthodox, Islamic, Jewish, or secular ethics classes. There are also private schools run by religious communities. Religious holidays are celebrated as public holidays, such as Easter, Christmas, and All Saints' Day. There are also many religious festivals, pilgrimages, and traditions that are part of the Croatian cultural heritage, such as the Feast of St. Blaise in Dubrovnik, the Feast of the Assumption in Sinj, the Feast of St. Domnius in Split, and the Feast of St. Mark in Zagreb.

Medicine and Health Care

Medicine and health care in Croatia are organized and regulated by the Ministry of Health and the Croatian Health Insurance Fund (CHIF). Croatia has a universal health care system, which covers almost the entire population through the mandatory health insurance scheme. The health care system consists of primary, secondary, and tertiary levels of care, provided by public and private providers. The health care system is funded by the state budget, the social security contributions, the EU funds, and other sources.

The primary health care level is the first point of contact for the patients, and it includes general practitioners, family physicians, pediatricians, gynecologists, dentists, and other specialists. The primary health care providers work in health centers, private practices, or mobile units, and they are contracted by the CHIF. The primary health care providers are responsible for the prevention, diagnosis, treatment, and referral of the patients, as well as for the coordination and continuity of care.

The secondary health care level is the second point of contact for the patients, and it includes specialists, surgeons, and other medical professionals. The secondary health care providers work in hospitals, clinics, or institutes, and they are contracted by the CHIF. The secondary health care providers are responsible for the diagnosis, treatment, and rehabilitation of the patients, as well as for the education and research.

The tertiary health care level is the highest and most specialized level of care, and it includes highly qualified and experienced specialists, surgeons, and other medical experts. The tertiary health care providers work in university hospitals, clinical centers, or national institutes, and they are contracted by the CHIF. The tertiary health care providers are responsible for the diagnosis, treatment, and rehabilitation of the most complex and rare cases, as well as for the education and research.

The health care system in Croatia faces many challenges and opportunities, such as the demographic, economic, and social changes and trends, the quality, efficiency, and accessibility of care, the health workforce, the health technology, and the health reforms. The health status of the population is improving, but still below the EU average, especially for the main causes of death and morbidity, such as cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and diabetes. The health care expenditures are increasing, but still below the EU average, accounting for 7.4% of GDP in 2018. The main sources of health care financing are the CHIF, which covers about 80% of the costs, the state budget, which covers about 10% of the costs, and the out-of-pocket payments, which cover about 10% of the costs. The main challenges and opportunities for health care financing are the rising demand and costs of health care, the inefficiency and inequity of resource allocation and utilization, the sustainability and adequacy of the health insurance system, and the transparency and accountability of the health care spending.

The health care expenditures are increasing, but still below the EU average, accounting for 7.4% of GDP in 2018. The main sources of health care financing are the CHIF, which covers about 80% of the costs, the state budget, which covers about 10% of the costs, and the out-of-pocket payments, which cover about 10% of the costs. The main challenges and opportunities for health care financing are the rising demand and costs of health care, the inefficiency and inequity of resource allocation and utilization, the sustainability and adequacy of the health insurance system, and the transparency and accountability of the health care spending.

The health workforce is the backbone of the health care system, providing the delivery and quality of care to the population. The health workforce consists of various categories and levels of health professionals, such as physicians, nurses, pharmacists, dentists, technicians, and assistants. The health workforce is regulated and supervised by the Ministry of Health, the Croatian Medical Chamber, the Croatian Chamber of Nurses, and other professional associations. The health workforce is trained and educated by the medical faculties, the nursing schools, and other educational institutions. The health workforce is contracted and paid by the CHIF, the state budget, or the private sector.

The health workforce faces many challenges and opportunities, such as the shortage and maldistribution of health professionals, especially in rural and remote areas, the aging and feminization of the health workforce, the emigration and mobility of health professionals, especially to other EU countries, the education and training of health professionals, especially in terms of quality, relevance, and innovation, the working conditions and motivation of health professionals, especially in terms of salaries, incentives, and satisfaction, and the performance and evaluation of health professionals, especially in terms of standards, competencies, and outcomes.

The health technology is the application of scientific and technical knowledge and skills to the health care system, in order to improve the prevention, diagnosis, treatment, and rehabilitation of diseases and injuries. The health technology includes various types and forms of devices, equipment, drugs, procedures, and systems, such as medical imaging, laboratory tests, surgical instruments, vaccines, telemedicine, and electronic health records. The health technology is developed and produced by the research and development institutions, the pharmaceutical and medical device industries, and other innovation actors. The health technology is regulated and assessed by the Ministry of Health, the Agency for Medicinal Products and Medical Devices, and other regulatory and evaluation bodies. The health technology is procured and used by the health care providers, the patients, and the public.

The health technology faces many challenges and opportunities, such as the availability and affordability of health technology, especially for the poor and vulnerable groups, the quality and safety of health technology, especially in terms of efficacy, effectiveness, and adverse effects, the adoption and diffusion of health technology, especially in terms of accessibility, appropriateness, and utilization, the management and governance of health technology, especially in terms of planning, prioritization, and coordination, and the impact and value of health technology, especially in terms of health outcomes, costs, and benefits.

The health reforms are the systematic and comprehensive changes and improvements of the health care system, in order to achieve the goals and objectives of the health policy and the health strategy. The health reforms are initiated and implemented by the government, the parliament, the CHIF, and other stakeholders, in consultation and cooperation with the health professionals, the patients, and the public. The health reforms are based on the principles and values of the health care system, such as universality, solidarity, equity, quality, efficiency, and sustainability. The health reforms are guided and informed by the evidence and experience, both national and international, as well as by the best practices and innovations.

The health reforms face many challenges and opportunities, such as the political and social support and consensus, the legal and institutional framework and capacity, the financial and human resources and incentives, the communication and information and participation, and the monitoring and evaluation and feedback. Some of the main areas and priorities of the health reforms are the reorganization and optimization of the health care network and services, the strengthening and integration of the primary health care and the public health, the improvement and standardization of the quality and safety of care, the introduction and expansion of the health technology assessment and the health information system, and the enhancement and diversification of the health care financing and the health insurance system.