African Americans are one of the most diverse and influential groups in the United States. They have a long and rich history that dates back to the ancient civilizations of Africa, where they originated from. They have also developed a unique and vibrant culture that reflects their African roots, their American experience, and their global connections. They have made significant contributions to various fields and domains, such as politics, arts, science, sports, and more. They have also faced and overcome many challenges and hardships, such as slavery, racism, and injustice, but they have also achieved and celebrated many accomplishments and successes. In this article, we will explore the multifaceted and dynamic heritage of African Americans, and how they have shaped and been shaped by the multicultural society they live in. We will also discuss some of the current issues and opportunities that affect them, and how they are continuing to create and influence the American society and the world.
The Origins of African Americans
The story of African Americans begins in Africa, the second largest and most diverse continent on the planet. Africa is home to thousands of ethnic groups, languages, and cultures, each with its own history and traditions. Some of the oldest and most advanced civilizations in human history emerged in Africa, such as Ghana, Mali, and Songhay, which developed trade, agriculture, mining, and education systems. African societies were also marked by a respect for tradition and a devotion to their community, values that still influence African Americans today.
The first Africans to arrive in America were not immigrants, but slaves. They were forcibly taken from their homelands by European traders and colonists, who exploited their labor and resources for profit. Between the 16th and 19th centuries, an estimated 12 million Africans were transported across the Atlantic Ocean in a brutal and inhumane journey known as the Middle Passage. Many died along the way from disease, starvation, or violence. Those who survived faced a life of oppression, discrimination, and resistance in the New World.
The European colonization of the Americas, and the resulting Atlantic slave trade, led to a large-scale transportation of enslaved Africans across the Atlantic; of the roughly 10–12 million Africans who were sold by the Barbary slave trade, either to European slavery or to servitude in the Americas, approximately 388,000 landed in North America. After arriving in various European colonies in North America, the enslaved Africans were sold to white colonists, primarily to work on cash crop plantations. A group of enslaved Africans arrived in the English Virginia Colony in 1619, marking the beginning of slavery in the colonial history of the United States; by 1776, roughly 20% of the British North American population was of African descent, both free and enslaved.
The Struggle for Freedom and Equality
African Americans have endured and fought against slavery, racism, and injustice throughout their history in America. They have also contributed to the development and growth of the nation in various fields, such as politics, arts, science, sports, and more. Some of the most notable figures and events in African American history include:
The American Revolution (1775-1783):
The American Revolution was a war between the 13 British colonies in North America and Great Britain, which resulted in the independence of the United States of America. Some African Americans fought for the British, hoping to gain their freedom, as the British promised to liberate any enslaved person who joined their side. Others fought for the American colonists, hoping to secure their rights, as some of the colonists supported the abolition of slavery or offered emancipation to those who served in their army. However, neither side fulfilled their promises, and slavery continued to exist in the new nation. According to historians, about 5,000 African Americans served in the Continental Army, and about 20,000 served in the British forces. Some of the most notable African American heroes of the Revolution were Crispus Attucks, the first martyr of the Boston Massacre; Salem Poor, a soldier who fought bravely at the Battle of Bunker Hill; James Armistead, a spy who provided crucial information to the Americans; and Peter Salem, a veteran who fought in several battles.
The Underground Railroad (1800s)
The Underground Railroad was a network of secret routes and safe houses established in the United States during the early to mid-19th century. It was used by enslaved African Americans primarily to escape into free states and from there to Canada. The network was composed of people of different races, religions, and backgrounds, who risked their lives and resources to help the fugitives. The network was not a literal railroad, but a metaphor for the journey and the cooperation involved. The terms "stations", "conductors", "agents", and "passengers" were used to describe the places, people, and enslaved people involved in the operation. Some of the most famous conductors of the Underground Railroad were Harriet Tubman, Frederick Douglass, and Sojourner Truth, who were themselves former enslaved people who escaped and dedicated their lives to helping others. Harriet Tubman, also known as "Moses", made 19 trips to the South and rescued over 300 enslaved people. Frederick Douglass, also known as "The Lion of Anacostia", was a prominent abolitionist, writer, and speaker, who shared his experiences and insights on slavery and freedom. Sojourner Truth, also known as "Isabella Baumfree", was a women's rights and anti-slavery activist, who delivered powerful speeches and sued for the freedom of her son. The Underground Railroad was a symbol of justice and a driving force for the abolitionist movement, which eventually led to the end of slavery in the United States.
The Civil War (1861-1865):
The Civil War was the deadliest and most divisive conflict in American history. It was fought between the northern and southern states over the issue of slavery, which had been a source of tension and controversy since the founding of the nation. The southern states, also known as the Confederate States of America, seceded from the Union in 1860-1861, after Abraham Lincoln's election as president, fearing that his anti-slavery policies would threaten their way of life. The northern states, also known as the United States of America, fought to preserve the Union and to end slavery. The war lasted for four years and resulted in more than 600,000 deaths and millions of casualties.
About 200,000 African Americans served in the Union army and navy, playing a crucial role in the victory. They fought bravely and heroically in many battles, such as Fort Wagner, Port Hudson, Milliken's Bend, and Petersburg. They also faced discrimination and prejudice from their white comrades and commanders, who often doubted their abilities and loyalty. They also faced the threat of being captured and enslaved or killed by the Confederates, who did not recognize them as soldiers, but as rebels and traitors. Despite these challenges, African Americans proved their courage and patriotism, and earned respect and recognition for their service.
The war resulted in the abolition of slavery and the granting of citizenship and voting rights to African Americans, but also in the rise of segregation and violence against them. The Emancipation Proclamation, issued by President Lincoln in 1863, declared that all enslaved people in the rebel states were free. The Thirteenth Amendment, ratified in 1865, abolished slavery in the entire nation. The Fourteenth Amendment, ratified in 1868, granted citizenship and equal protection to all people born or naturalized in the United States, regardless of race. The Fifteenth Amendment, ratified in 1870, gave the right to vote to all male citizens, regardless of race. These amendments were meant to secure the rights and freedoms of African Americans, and to ensure their participation and representation in the American democracy.
However, these rights and freedoms were soon undermined and violated by the rise of segregation and violence against African Americans. The Reconstruction era, which lasted from 1865 to 1877, was a period of political and social reform, but also of conflict and resistance. The federal government tried to protect and empower the newly freed African Americans, by establishing military occupation, enforcing civil rights laws, and supporting the creation of schools, churches, and organizations. However, the southern states tried to restore their pre-war order, by passing laws that restricted the rights and opportunities of African Americans, such as the Black Codes and the Jim Crow laws. These laws enforced racial segregation and discrimination in public and private places, such as schools, transportation, housing, and employment. They also denied African Americans the right to vote, by imposing poll taxes, literacy tests, and violence and intimidation. Many white supremacist groups, such as the Ku Klux Klan, emerged and terrorized African Americans, by lynching, burning, and murdering them. The federal government eventually withdrew its troops and support from the South, and abandoned its efforts to protect and enforce the rights of African Americans. The Reconstruction era ended with the Compromise of 1877, which gave the presidency to Rutherford B. Hayes, a Republican, in exchange for the end of military occupation and federal intervention in the South. This marked the beginning of the Jim Crow era, which lasted until the mid-20th century, and which was characterized by the systematic oppression and marginalization of African Americans.
The Harlem Renaissance (1920s):
The Harlem Renaissance was a cultural movement that celebrated the artistic and intellectual achievements of African Americans in literature, music, art, and theater. It was part of the larger New Negro movement, which aimed to challenge the stereotypes and racism that African Americans faced, and to assert their identity, dignity, and creativity. The movement was centered in Harlem, a neighborhood in New York City that attracted a large number of African American migrants from the South, as well as immigrants from the Caribbean and Africa. Harlem became a vibrant and diverse community, where African Americans could express themselves and explore their heritage and potential.
Some of the most influential figures of the Harlem Renaissance were Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, Louis Armstrong, and Duke Ellington. Langston Hughes was a poet, novelist, and essayist, who wrote about the joys and struggles of Black life, using jazz and blues rhythms and vernacular language. He also encouraged young Black writers to be proud of their culture and to resist oppression. Zora Neale Hurston was a novelist, folklorist, and anthropologist, who wrote about the lives and folklore of Black people in the rural South, using humor and dialect. She also collected and preserved the oral traditions and stories of African Americans. Louis Armstrong was a jazz musician, singer, and bandleader, who revolutionized the genre with his innovative trumpet playing, improvisation, and vocal style. He also influenced other musicians and genres, such as swing, pop, and rock. Duke Ellington was a jazz composer, pianist, and bandleader, who created a distinctive sound and style for his orchestra, blending classical, blues, and gospel elements. He also composed many works that celebrated the history and culture of African Americans, such as Black, Brown, and Beige and Harlem.
The Harlem Renaissance was a significant and influential movement in African American history and culture, as well as in American and global culture. It showcased the diversity and creativity of African Americans, and inspired generations of artists, writers, musicians, and activists. It also challenged the racial and social barriers that African Americans faced, and contributed to the civil rights and Black power movements that followed.
The Civil Rights Movement (1950s-1960s)
The Civil Rights Movement was a social movement that aimed to end racial discrimination and secure equal rights and opportunities for African Americans. The movement emerged in response to the widespread and systematic oppression and violence that African Americans faced in the Jim Crow era, which enforced racial segregation and inequality in the South and other parts of the country. The movement used various strategies, such as boycotts, marches, sit-ins, and lawsuits, to challenge the laws and practices that violated their civil rights and human dignity. The movement also drew inspiration and support from other movements and groups, such as the labor movement, the women's movement, and the international anti-colonial movement. Some of the most prominent leaders and activists of the movement were Martin Luther King Jr., Rosa Parks, Malcolm X, and the NAACP.
Martin Luther King Jr. was a Baptist minister and a Nobel Peace Prize laureate, who advocated for nonviolent resistance and civil disobedience as the means to achieve social change. He led and participated in many campaigns and events, such as the Montgomery Bus Boycott, the March on Washington, the Birmingham Campaign, and the Selma to Montgomery Marches. He also delivered many speeches and writings, such as the "I Have a Dream" speech and the "Letter from Birmingham Jail", which articulated his vision and philosophy of justice and equality. He was assassinated in 1968, but his legacy and influence continue to inspire millions of people around the world.
Rosa Parks was a seamstress and a civil rights activist, who sparked the Montgomery Bus Boycott by refusing to give up her seat to a white passenger on a segregated bus in 1955. Her act of defiance and courage became a symbol of the resistance and the struggle for dignity and freedom. She also worked with the NAACP and other organizations to fight for civil rights and social justice. She received many honors and awards, such as the Presidential Medal of Freedom and the Congressional Gold Medal, for her contributions to the movement and the nation.
Malcolm X was a Muslim minister and a human rights activist, who advocated for black nationalism, self-defense, and self-determination. He was a charismatic and controversial leader, who challenged the mainstream civil rights movement and the white establishment. He also criticized the racism and oppression that African Americans faced in America and abroad. He traveled extensively and established connections with various groups and leaders, such as the Nation of Islam, the Organization of Afro-American Unity, and the African independence movements. He was assassinated in 1965, but his ideas and teachings influenced many people and movements, such as the Black Power movement and the Black Panther Party.
The NAACP, or the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, was a civil rights organization founded in 1909, which aimed to secure the political, educational, social, and economic rights of African Americans. The NAACP used various methods, such as lobbying, litigation, education, and mobilization, to fight for civil rights and racial justice. The NAACP played a key role in many legal cases and campaigns, such as the Brown v. Board of Education case, which overturned the "separate but equal" doctrine and desegregated public schools, and the Freedom Rides, which challenged the segregation of interstate transportation. The NAACP is still active today, and is the largest and oldest civil rights organization in the country..
The Black Power Movement (1960s-1970s)
The Black Power Movement was a political and cultural movement that emphasized the pride, identity, and self-determination of African Americans. The movement emerged in the late 1960s and early 1970s, as a reaction to the perceived failures and limitations of the civil rights movement, which had focused on integration and nonviolence. The movement advocated for black nationalism, which was the belief that African Americans should form their own political, economic, and social institutions, separate from the white-dominated society. The movement also sought to empower African Americans economically, by supporting black-owned businesses, cooperatives, and communities. The movement also demanded social justice, by challenging the racism, oppression, and violence that African Americans faced in America and abroad. The movement also rejected the mainstream norms and values of white America, and instead celebrated the diversity and creativity of African American culture, history, and identity.
Some of the most influential groups and figures of the movement were the Black Panther Party, Stokely Carmichael, Angela Davis, and Muhammad Ali. The Black Panther Party was a revolutionary socialist organization, founded in 1966, that aimed to protect and serve the black community, by providing social programs, such as free breakfast, health clinics, and education, and by arming and defending themselves against police brutality and government repression. The party also advocated for a global alliance of oppressed people, and supported anti-imperialist and anti-colonial struggles around the world. Stokely Carmichael, later known as Kwame Ture, was a leader of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), and later the All-African People's Revolutionary Party (A-APRP). He popularized the slogan "Black Power" in 1966, and promoted the ideas of black nationalism, pan-Africanism, and socialism. He also organized and participated in various campaigns and movements, such as the Lowndes County Freedom Organization, the Black United Front, and the Black Liberation Army. Angela Davis was a scholar, activist, and feminist, who was involved in various causes and organizations, such as the Communist Party USA, the Black Panther Party, the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom, and the Critical Resistance. She was also a prominent figure in the prison abolition movement, and a critic of the prison-industrial complex. She also wrote and lectured on various topics, such as race, class, gender, violence, and liberation. Muhammad Ali was a professional boxer, activist, and humanitarian, who was widely regarded as one of the greatest athletes and cultural icons of the 20th century. He was also a vocal supporter of the Black Power movement, and a convert to Islam. He refused to serve in the Vietnam War, and was stripped of his titles and banned from boxing for several years. He also spoke out against racism, injustice, and oppression, and inspired millions of people with his courage, charisma, and principles.
The Black Power Movement was a significant and influential movement in African American history and culture, as well as in American and global history and culture. It challenged the status quo and the power structures that oppressed and exploited African Americans, and other people of color. It also inspired and empowered African Americans, and other marginalized and oppressed groups, to assert their rights, dignity, and identity. It also created and contributed to various forms of art, music, literature, and culture, that expressed the diversity and creativity of African Americans, and influenced generations of artists, writers, musicians, and activists.
The Contemporary Challenges and Opportunities
African Americans have made significant progress and achievements in the past decades, but they still face many challenges and barriers in the present day. Some of the most pressing issues that affect African Americans are:
Economic inequality:
Economic inequality is one of the most persistent and pervasive challenges that African Americans face in the United States. According to various studies and reports, African Americans have lower incomes, wealth, and homeownership rates than whites, and are more likely to live in poverty or experience unemployment. They also face discrimination and bias in the labor market, education system, and financial sector, which limit their opportunities and access to resources. These economic disparities have profound and lasting effects on the well-being, health, education, and mobility of African Americans, as well as on the overall economy and society.
According to the Pew Research Center, the median annual income for Black households in 2019 was $43,862, which was 37% less than that of white households, at $69,823. The income gap between Black and white households has remained relatively stable since 1970, despite some fluctuations over time. The income gap is partly explained by the differences in educational attainment, occupational distribution, and labor force participation between Black and white workers, but it also reflects the racial pay gaps that exist within occupational categories and educational levels. For instance, Black workers with a bachelor’s degree or higher earned 79% as much as their white counterparts in 2019.
The wealth gap between Black and white households is even larger and more persistent than the income gap. Wealth, or net worth, is the total value of assets (such as savings, investments, and property) minus the total value of debts (such as mortgages, loans, and credit cards). Wealth is an important indicator of economic security and opportunity, as it can be used to cope with emergencies, invest in education, start a business, or pass on to the next generation. According to the Federal Reserve, the median net worth of Black households in 2019 was $24,100, which was 85% less than that of white households, at $188,200. The wealth gap between Black and white households has widened over time, especially after the Great Recession of 2007-2009, which disproportionately affected the housing and financial assets of Black households.
Homeownership is one of the main sources and indicators of wealth in the United States, as well as a means of accessing better neighborhoods, schools, and services. However, Black households have significantly lower homeownership rates than white households, and face various barriers and challenges in accessing and maintaining homeownership. According to the US Census Bureau, the homeownership rate for Black households in 2020 was 44%, which was 30 percentage points lower than that of white households, at 74%. The homeownership gap between Black and white households has also increased over time, especially after the subprime mortgage crisis of 2006-2008, which resulted in a large number of foreclosures and evictions of Black homeowners. Some of the factors that contribute to the low and declining homeownership rates among Black households are the lack of intergenerational wealth transfer, the racial discrimination and bias in the mortgage and housing markets, the high costs and risks of homeownership, and the limited availability and affordability of housing options.
Poverty is another measure and consequence of economic inequality, as it reflects the inability to meet the basic needs and expenses of living. Poverty is associated with various negative outcomes, such as poor health, low education, food insecurity, and crime. According to the US Census Bureau, the poverty rate for Black people in 2019 was 18.8%, which was more than double that of white people, at 9.1%. The poverty gap between Black and white people has also remained relatively stable since 1970, despite some fluctuations over time. The poverty rate for Black people is influenced by various factors, such as the income and wealth disparities, the unemployment and underemployment rates, the educational attainment and attainment gaps, the family structure and composition, and the geographic location and segregation.
Unemployment is another indicator and cause of economic inequality, as it reflects the lack of access to and participation in the labor market. Unemployment is linked to various negative outcomes, such as reduced income and wealth, lower self-esteem and mental health, and lower human capital and skills. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the unemployment rate for Black workers in 2020 was 10.3%, which was 4.1 percentage points higher than that of white workers, at 6.2%. The unemployment gap between Black and white workers has also persisted over time, regardless of the economic conditions and cycles. The unemployment rate for Black workers is affected by various factors, such as the educational attainment and attainment gaps, the occupational distribution and segregation, the discrimination and bias in the hiring and firing processes, and the geographic location and mobility.
Discrimination and bias are the underlying and overarching factors that contribute to and exacerbate the economic inequality between Black and white Americans. Discrimination and bias refer to the unfair and unequal treatment of individuals or groups based on their race or ethnicity, rather than their merit or qualifications. Discrimination and bias can be intentional or unintentional, explicit or implicit, individual or institutional, and can occur at various levels and stages of the economic system. For instance, Black Americans face discrimination and bias in the labor market, such as in the recruitment, hiring, promotion, and retention processes, which affect their income and career prospects. They also face discrimination and bias in the education system, such as in the access, quality, and funding of schools, which affect their educational attainment and achievement. They also face discrimination and bias in the financial sector, such as in the access, terms, and conditions of credit, loans, and mortgages, which affect their wealth and homeownership opportunities. They also face discrimination and bias in the consumer market, such as in the pricing, quality, and availability of goods and services, which affect their consumption and living standards.
Economic inequality is a complex and multifaceted problem that requires a comprehensive and coordinated solution. Addressing the economic inequality between Black and white Americans would not only benefit the Black community, but also the entire economy and society, as it would increase the productivity, innovation, and growth of the nation, as well as the social cohesion, justice, and democracy of the nation. According to a report by McKinsey & Company, closing the racial wealth gap could add $1.5 trillion to the US GDP by 2028. Therefore, economic equality is not only a moral and ethical imperative, but also an economic and strategic one.
Racial profiling and police brutality:
Racial profiling is the practice of targeting individuals or groups for suspicion or investigation based on their race or ethnicity, rather than on evidence or behavior. Police brutality is the use of excessive or unnecessary force by law enforcement officers against civilians, especially in situations where the civilians pose no threat or resistance. Both racial profiling and police brutality are forms of discrimination and violence that violate the civil rights and human dignity of African Americans. They also undermine the trust and legitimacy of the police and the justice system, and create fear and resentment among the Black community.
African Americans are disproportionately targeted, harassed, and killed by law enforcement officers, often without justification or accountability. According to various studies and reports, African Americans are more likely than whites to be stopped, searched, arrested, and subjected to force or deadly force by the police, even when they are unarmed or not involved in any crime. They are also more likely to be killed by the police, and less likely to receive justice or compensation for their deaths. For instance, between 2013 and 2020, 1,127 African Americans were killed by the police, accounting for 28% of all police killings, despite being only 13% of the U.S. population. Only 1.7% of these cases resulted in officers being charged with a crime, and only 0.3% resulted in officers being convicted of a crime.
African Americans also face racial bias and prejudice in the criminal justice system, which results in higher arrest, conviction, and incarceration rates than whites, as well as harsher sentences and penalties. According to various studies and reports, African Americans are more likely than whites to be prosecuted, convicted, and sentenced for the same or similar offenses, even when they have similar criminal histories and circumstances . They are also more likely to receive longer sentences, mandatory minimums, and the death penalty, and less likely to receive parole, probation, or clemency . For instance, in 2018, African Americans comprised 33% of the prison population, but only 12% of the adult population. They also received sentences that were 19% longer than those of whites for the same crimes.
Racial profiling and police brutality are serious and urgent problems that require comprehensive and systemic solutions. Some of the possible solutions include reforming the police policies and practices, such as banning chokeholds, requiring body cameras, and implementing de-escalation and anti-bias training; increasing the accountability and transparency of the police and the justice system, such as creating independent oversight boards, collecting and reporting data on police misconduct, and prosecuting and punishing officers who violate the law and the rights of civilians; and improving the relationship and cooperation between the police and the community, such as engaging in dialogue, education, and partnership, and addressing the underlying social and economic issues that contribute to crime and violence.
Health disparities:
Health disparities are differences in health status or health outcomes that are linked to social, economic, or environmental factors. Health disparities can affect the quality and length of life, as well as the risk and severity of diseases and conditions. Health disparities can also reflect the inequities and injustices that exist in the society and the health care system.
African Americans have poorer health outcomes and lower life expectancy than whites, due to various factors such as lack of access to quality health care, environmental hazards, chronic stress, and genetic predisposition. They are also more vulnerable to certain diseases and conditions, such as diabetes, hypertension, heart disease, cancer, and COVID-19.
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the life expectancy for African Americans in 2018 was 74.7 years, which was 3.6 years lower than that of whites, at 78.3 years. The gap in life expectancy between African Americans and whites has narrowed over time, but it still reflects the cumulative effects of the social and economic disadvantages that African Americans face throughout their lives.
Lack of access to quality health care is one of the main factors that contribute to the health disparities for African Americans. African Americans are more likely than whites to be uninsured or underinsured, which limits their ability to afford and obtain preventive and curative health services. They also face barriers and challenges in accessing health care, such as transportation, language, culture, and discrimination. They also report receiving lower quality of care and less patient-centered care than whites, which affects their satisfaction and trust in the health care system.
Environmental hazards are another factor that affect the health outcomes of African Americans. African Americans are more likely than whites to live in areas with poor air quality, water quality, and sanitation, which increase their exposure to pollutants and contaminants that can harm their health. They are also more likely to live in areas with limited access to healthy foods, physical activity, and green spaces, which affect their nutrition and well-being. They are also more likely to live in areas with high levels of crime, violence, and poverty, which affect their safety and security.
Chronic stress is another factor that influences the health status of African Americans. Chronic stress is the prolonged and repeated exposure to stressful events or situations that exceed the coping resources of an individual. Chronic stress can have negative effects on the physical and mental health of an individual, such as weakening the immune system, increasing the blood pressure, impairing the memory, and triggering the depression. African Americans experience higher levels of chronic stress than whites, due to the racism, discrimination, and oppression that they encounter in their daily lives. They also have fewer resources and support to cope with and manage their stress, such as social networks, counseling, and therapy.
Genetic predisposition is another factor that plays a role in the health disparities for African Americans. Genetic predisposition is the inherited tendency or susceptibility to develop certain diseases or conditions, due to the variations or mutations in the genes. Genetic predisposition can interact with environmental and lifestyle factors to increase or decrease the risk and severity of diseases and conditions. African Americans have a higher genetic predisposition to certain diseases and conditions, such as sickle cell disease, hypertension, diabetes, and prostate cancer, than whites. However, genetic predisposition is not the sole or the main cause of these diseases and conditions, and it can be modified or prevented by environmental and lifestyle interventions.
African Americans are also more vulnerable to certain diseases and conditions, such as diabetes, hypertension, heart disease, cancer, and COVID-19, than whites. These diseases and conditions are among the leading causes of death and disability for African Americans, and they have a significant impact on their quality and length of life. According to the CDC, in 2018, African Americans had higher death rates than whites for the following diseases and conditions:
- Diabetes: 40.5 per 100,000 for African Americans, compared to 21.4 per 100,000 for whites
- Hypertension: 103.9 per 100,000 for African Americans, compared to 56.0 per 100,000 for whites
- Heart disease: 208.8 per 100,000 for African Americans, compared to 165.8 per 100,000 for whites
- Cancer: 185.6 per 100,000 for African Americans, compared to 158.6 per 100,000 for whites
- COVID-19: 164.3 per 100,000 for African Americans, compared to 72.4 per 100,000 for whites (as of April 7, 2021)
The higher rates and risks of these diseases and conditions for African Americans are influenced by the factors mentioned above, such as the lack of access to quality health care, the environmental hazards, the chronic stress, and the genetic predisposition. They are also influenced by other factors, such as the behavioral and lifestyle factors, the comorbidities and complications, and the social and cultural factors. For instance, African Americans are more likely than whites to have unhealthy behaviors and lifestyles, such as smoking, drinking, eating, and physical inactivity, which increase their risk of developing and worsening these diseases and conditions. They are also more likely to have comorbidities and complications, such as obesity, kidney disease, and stroke, which increase their mortality and morbidity from these diseases and conditions. They are also more likely to face social and cultural barriers and challenges, such as stigma, mistrust, and misinformation, which affect their prevention and treatment of these diseases and conditions.
Cultural appropriation and erasure:
Cultural appropriation is the unacknowledged or inappropriate adoption of a portion of one culture or identity by members of another culture or identity. Cultural erasure is the removal or denial of the existence or significance of a culture or identity. Both cultural appropriation and erasure are forms of disrespect and injustice that affect African Americans, who have created and contributed to various forms of art, music, literature, and culture, which have enriched and influenced the American society and the world. However, they often do not receive proper recognition, respect, or compensation for their work, and their cultural expressions are often exploited, distorted, or stolen by others, especially by the dominant white culture.
African Americans have a rich and diverse cultural heritage, which reflects their African roots, their American experience, and their global connections. They have created and contributed to various forms of art, music, literature, and culture, such as jazz, blues, rock, rap, hip hop, soul, gospel, R&B, funk, reggae, dance, poetry, novels, essays, speeches, films, paintings, sculptures, quilts, fashion, cuisine, and more. These forms of art, music, literature, and culture have expressed their identity, values, and aspirations, as well as challenged the stereotypes and prejudices that they face. They have also inspired and influenced millions of people around the world, across different races, ethnicities, generations, and genres.
However, these forms of art, music, literature, and culture have also been subject to cultural appropriation and erasure by others, especially by the dominant white culture. This means that others have taken, used, or claimed these forms of art, music, literature, and culture as their own, without giving proper credit, respect, or compensation to the original creators and contributors. This also means that others have removed, ignored, or denied the existence or significance of these forms of art, music, literature, and culture, or the people behind them. This has resulted in the loss or distortion of the original meaning, context, and purpose of these forms of art, music, literature, and culture, as well as the marginalization and invisibility of the people who created and contributed to them.
Some examples of cultural appropriation and erasure of African American art, music, literature, and culture are:
The Elvis Presley phenomenon
Elvis Presley was a white singer and musician who became one of the most popular and influential figures in rock and roll history. However, he was also accused of appropriating and profiting from the music and style of black artists, such as Chuck Berry, Little Richard, and Big Mama Thornton, who did not receive the same recognition, respect, or compensation as him. He was also criticized for perpetuating the racial stereotypes and inequalities that existed in the music industry and the society at large¹².
The Rachel Dolezal scandal
Rachel Dolezal was a white woman who pretended to be black for years, and became the president of the Spokane chapter of the NAACP. She also claimed to be a victim of racial discrimination and hate crimes, and taught courses on African American culture and history. She was exposed and denounced by her own parents and the public, who accused her of lying, fraud, and cultural appropriation. She was also criticized for undermining the struggles and experiences of real black people, and for taking away the opportunities and resources that belonged to them.
The Miley Cyrus controversy
Miley Cyrus was a white pop star who adopted various elements of black culture, such as twerking, rapping, and wearing dreadlocks, in her music and performances. She was accused of exploiting and mocking black culture, and of using it as a tool to gain attention and popularity. She was also accused of ignoring the historical and social context and significance of black culture, and of failing to acknowledge or support the issues and causes that affect black people .
Cultural appropriation and erasure are not only offensive and disrespectful, but also harmful and oppressive. They deprive African Americans of their cultural identity and heritage, and of their rightful recognition and reward. They also reinforce the power and privilege of the dominant culture, and the oppression and marginalization of the minority culture. They also distort and erase the history and reality of African Americans, and of the American society and the world. Therefore, cultural appropriation and erasure should be challenged and prevented, and cultural appreciation and respect should be promoted and practiced.
Despite these challenges, African Americans also have many opportunities and strengths that enable them to overcome and thrive in the multicultural society they live in. Some of these are:
Education and innovation
Education and innovation are essential for the development and progress of individuals and societies. Education provides the knowledge, skills, and values that enable people to pursue their goals and aspirations, and to contribute to the common good. Innovation is the creation and application of new ideas, products, or processes that solve problems, improve lives, or generate value. Education and innovation are closely related, as education fosters creativity, curiosity, and critical thinking, while innovation requires learning, experimentation, and collaboration.
African Americans have shown remarkable resilience and excellence in the field of education, despite the barriers and obstacles they face. They have overcome the legacy of slavery, segregation, and discrimination, which denied them access to quality education and equal opportunities. They have also overcome the challenges of poverty, violence, and racism, which affect their health, safety, and well-being. They have achieved higher levels of education and academic performance than ever before, and have closed the gaps with their white counterparts in many indicators, such as high school graduation, college enrollment, and degree attainment.
African Americans have also produced many innovators, inventors, scholars, and leaders who have advanced the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM), as well as humanities and social sciences. They have created and contributed to various forms of innovation, such as patents, publications, products, and services, that have enriched and influenced the American society and the world. They have also inspired and influenced millions of people around the world, across different races, ethnicities, generations, and disciplines.
Some of the most influential African American innovators and inventors are:
- George Washington Carver: He was a botanist and inventor who developed hundreds of products from peanuts, sweet potatoes, and other crops, such as food, cosmetics, dyes, paints, and plastics. He also promoted agricultural education and conservation, and helped improve the lives of poor farmers in the South.
- Madam C. J. Walker: She was an entrepreneur and philanthropist who created a line of hair care products for black women, and became one of the first self-made female millionaires in America. She also supported various causes and organizations, such as education, arts, civil rights, and anti-lynching.
- Lewis Howard Latimer: He was an engineer and inventor who worked with Thomas Edison and Alexander Graham Bell, and improved the design and production of the electric light bulb and the telephone. He also wrote the first book on electric lighting, and patented several inventions, such as a water closet for railroad cars and a lock for hotel doors.
- Charles Richard Drew: He was a physician and researcher who pioneered the field of blood transfusion and storage, and developed the first blood bank in the United States. He also improved the techniques and standards of blood collection and processing, and saved thousands of lives during World War II.
- Katherine Johnson: She was a mathematician and physicist who worked at NASA, and calculated the trajectories, launch windows, and emergency return paths for many space missions, such as Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo. She also verified the calculations of the first electronic computers, and contributed to the development of the space shuttle and the Earth Resources Satellite.
- Mae Jemison: She was an astronaut and physician who became the first black woman to travel in space, aboard the Space Shuttle Endeavour in 1992. She also conducted experiments on weightlessness and motion sickness, and co-founded a company that develops technologies for health care in developing countries.
- Mark Dean: He was a computer engineer and inventor who co-developed the IBM personal computer, and holds three of the nine original patents for it. He also led the team that created the first gigahertz processor, and invented the Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) bus, which allows multiple devices to be connected to a computer.
- Neil deGrasse Tyson: He is an astrophysicist and science communicator who is the director of the Hayden Planetarium and the host of the popular TV shows Cosmos and StarTalk. He has also written several books and articles on astronomy, cosmology, and science literacy, and has received many awards and honors for his work.
These are just a few examples of the many African American innovators and inventors who have made an impact in STEM, as well as humanities and social sciences. They represent the diversity and creativity of African American culture and identity, and the resilience and excellence of African American education and innovation.
Political and social activism:
Political and social activism is the collective action of individuals or groups to promote or oppose certain causes or issues, such as civil rights, human rights, social justice, and environmental justice. Political and social activism can take various forms, such as protests, boycotts, petitions, lobbying, litigation, education, and media. Political and social activism can also aim to achieve various goals, such as changing laws, policies, or attitudes, raising awareness or consciousness, empowering or mobilizing people, or creating or transforming institutions.
African Americans have a long and proud tradition of political and social activism, which has shaped and transformed the American democracy and society. They have organized and participated in various movements and campaigns that have advocated for civil rights, human rights, social justice, and environmental justice, not only for themselves, but also for other marginalized and oppressed groups. They have also increased their representation and influence in the political arena, by voting, running for office, and holding positions of power and leadership.
Some of the most influential African American political and social movements and campaigns are:
The abolitionist movement
The abolitionist movement was a movement that aimed to end slavery and the slave trade in the United States and around the world. The movement began in the late 18th century and lasted until the end of the Civil War in 1865. The movement involved various actors, such as enslaved people, free blacks, white allies, religious groups, and political parties. The movement used various strategies, such as petitions, publications, speeches, lawsuits, boycotts, and rebellions. The movement also faced various challenges, such as violence, repression, and opposition. Some of the most prominent figures of the abolitionist movement were Frederick Douglass, Harriet Tubman, Sojourner Truth, William Lloyd Garrison, and John Brown.
The civil rights movement
The civil rights movement was a movement that aimed to end racial discrimination and secure equal rights and opportunities for African Americans. The movement emerged in the 1950s and 1960s, as a response to the widespread and systematic oppression and violence that African Americans faced in the Jim Crow era, which enforced racial segregation and inequality in the South and other parts of the country. The movement used various strategies, such as boycotts, marches, sit-ins, and lawsuits, to challenge the laws and practices that violated their civil rights and human dignity. The movement also drew inspiration and support from other movements and groups, such as the labor movement, the women's movement, and the international anti-colonial movement. Some of the most prominent leaders and activists of the movement were Martin Luther King Jr., Rosa Parks, Malcolm X, and the NAACP.
The Black Power movement
The Black Power movement was a movement that emphasized the pride, identity, and self-determination of African Americans. The movement emerged in the late 1960s and early 1970s, as a reaction to the perceived failures and limitations of the civil rights movement, which had focused on integration and nonviolence. The movement advocated for black nationalism, which was the belief that African Americans should form their own political, economic, and social institutions, separate from the white-dominated society.
The movement also sought to empower African Americans economically, by supporting black-owned businesses, cooperatives, and communities. The movement also demanded social justice, by challenging the racism, oppression, and violence that African Americans faced in America and abroad. The movement also rejected the mainstream norms and values of white America, and instead celebrated the diversity and creativity of African American culture, history, and identity. Some of the most influential groups and figures of the movement were the Black Panther Party, Stokely Carmichael, Angela Davis, and Muhammad Ali.
The environmental justice movement
The environmental justice movement is a movement that addresses the unequal distribution of environmental benefits and burdens among different groups, especially along the lines of race, class, and gender. The movement emerged in the 1980s and 1990s, as a response to the environmental racism and discrimination that African Americans and other people of color faced, such as living in areas with poor air quality, water quality, and sanitation, which increased their exposure to pollutants and contaminants that harmed their health.
The movement also challenged the environmental policies and practices that excluded or ignored the voices and interests of the affected communities, and demanded their participation and representation in the decision-making processes. The movement also advocated for the protection and restoration of the natural resources and ecosystems that sustained the livelihoods and cultures of the marginalized and oppressed groups. Some of the most prominent organizations and activists of the movement are the Environmental Justice Network, the Environmental Justice Leadership Forum, Robert Bullard, and Majora Carter.
Cultural diversity and creativity
Cultural diversity and creativity are the variety and originality of cultural expressions and products that reflect the different backgrounds, perspectives, and experiences of individuals and groups. Cultural diversity and creativity are important for the development and well-being of individuals and societies, as they foster mutual understanding, respect, and dialogue, as well as innovation, learning, and problem-solving.
African Americans have a rich and diverse cultural heritage, which reflects their African roots, their American experience, and their global connections. They have created and contributed to various forms of art, music, literature, and culture, which have expressed their identity, values, and aspirations, as well as challenged the stereotypes and prejudices that they face. They have also embraced and celebrated their diversity and differences, which have enriched and strengthened their community and society.
African Americans have a complex and diverse ancestry, which includes various ethnic groups from Africa, such as the Akan, Yoruba, Igbo, Wolof, Mandinka, and Hausa, as well as other groups from Europe, Asia, and the Americas, such as the English, Irish, French, Spanish, Native American, and Asian. These different ancestral origins have influenced the physical appearance, genetic makeup, and cultural traits of African Americans, creating a spectrum of diversity and variation within the Black population. African Americans have also maintained and explored their connections with their ancestral homelands, as well as with other diasporic communities around the world, through various means, such as travel, education, research, and cultural exchange.
African Americans have a unique and dynamic American experience, which spans from the colonial era to the present day, and encompasses various regions, states, cities, and neighborhoods. They have endured and overcome the hardships and horrors of slavery, segregation, and discrimination, as well as the challenges and opportunities of migration, urbanization, and globalization. They have also participated and contributed to the political, economic, and social development and progress of the United States, as well as the cultural, artistic, and intellectual movements and trends that have shaped and transformed the American society and culture.
African Americans have a vibrant and creative cultural expression, which includes various forms of art, music, literature, and culture, such as jazz, blues, rock, rap, hip hop, soul, gospel, R&B, funk, reggae, dance, poetry, novels, essays, speeches, films, paintings, sculptures, quilts, fashion, cuisine, and more. These forms of art, music, literature, and culture have reflected and articulated the identity, values, and aspirations of African Americans, as well as the joys and struggles, the hopes and fears, the dreams and realities, that they have experienced and shared. They have also challenged and confronted the stereotypes and prejudices that they have faced and fought, and have advocated and demanded for their rights, dignity, and justice. They have also inspired and influenced millions of people around the world, across different races, ethnicities, generations, and genres, and have enriched and diversified the American and global culture and society.
In short summary: African Americans are a vital and vibrant part of the American society and the world. They have a complex and multifaceted history, culture, and identity, which have been shaped by their African origins, their American experience, and their global connections. They have faced and overcome many challenges and hardships, but they have also achieved and contributed many accomplishments and successes. They have a unique and valuable perspective and voice, which have enriched and influenced the multicultural society they live in. They are not a monolithic or homogeneous group, but a diverse and dynamic one, with many stories and experiences to share and celebrate.